My AccountThe Science of Copper, Explained
Your body handles copper in two very different forms. Neuropharmacologist Dr. Tim Marshall explains why the form you take matters—and how copper(I) works with your body's own design.
Most people think of copper as a single nutrient. But in your body, copper exists in two forms with different electrical charges—called oxidation states—and your body treats them very differently.
The form your cells use
The predominant form in whole foods like organ meats, shellfish, nuts, and seeds. Your cells' entire copper transport and delivery system is built around it. Ready to use on arrival.
The form most supplements use
Found in tap water, processed foods, and most copper supplements—glycinate, gluconate, citrate, oxide, and sulfate. It has to be converted before your cells can take it in, and that conversion doesn't come easily.
Copper is a foundational trace mineral your body relies on every day. It supports:
But to do any of this, copper has to get into your cells—and reach the right destination.
When researchers used X-ray absorption spectroscopy to examine copper in real foods, they found that copper(I) is the predominant form. In organ meats, shellfish, nuts, and seeds, copper is naturally held by sulfur-rich compounds that keep it in its reduced, ready-to-use state.
Copper(II) shows up mostly where oxygen and processing have stripped those natural protections away: tap water, highly processed foods, and conventional supplements.
From the moment you take it to the moment your body releases what it doesn't need, every step is built around copper(I).
Your gut's main copper entry point is a transporter called CTR1, and it only accepts copper(I). Copper(II) arrives at a locked door. It must first be converted—a demanding step that limits how much gets through and can create oxidative stress along the way. Copper(I) walks right in.
Inside the cell, copper is never left on its own. Specialized carrier proteins called chaperones—all working with copper(I)—pass it hand to hand to where it's needed:
When you have more copper than you need, your liver uses a transporter called ATP7B to move the extra into bile for elimination. ATP7B's binding sites are highly selective for copper(I)—so the form you take is the form your body is designed to regulate.
Copper(I)-Nicotinate · BioCopper1®
Copper(I) is delicate. Exposed to oxygen and stomach acid, it easily slips back into copper(II). Copper(I)-nicotinate solves that by pairing a copper(I) ion with nicotinic acid (vitamin B3) in a stable chelate. The result: copper that holds its copper(I) form through the stomach and arrives at the gut ready for direct uptake.
In a 28-day study of 56 adults, those taking copper(I)-nicotinate reported a significant 34% reduction in fatigue from baseline, and significantly greater improvement in physical function than those on placebo. It was well tolerated, with no serious adverse events.
KGK Synergize Inc. (2014). Protocol 13MFHM, Final Report. Sponsored by MitoSynergy LLC.
In human fibroblasts under oxidative stress, BioCopper1® supported mitochondrial respiration and helped cells handle oxidants.
Wallace, S., Lawes, S., Scheck, A. C., & Frye, R. E. (2026). Antioxidants, 15(9), 1147. View on PubMed
Both studies were funded by MitoSynergy LLC. The clinical study was conducted by KGK Synergize Inc., an independent contract research organization.
Neuropharmacologist · Nutritional Biochemist · Regenerative Medicine Specialist
Dr. Tim Marshall has spent more than 25 years at the intersection of pharmacology, chemistry, and nutrition—turning complex biochemistry into practical strategies for better health.
He began his career in drug discovery as an analytical chemist at Pfizer Global Research and Development and Aventis-Selectide Pharmaceuticals before earning his Ph.D. in Medical Pharmacology from the University of Arizona College of Medicine. From 2012 to 2022, he worked alongside neurologist Dr. Carol Henricks at NorthStar Neurology and Hyperbarics in Tucson, designing nutrient protocols to complement hyperbaric oxygen therapy. He has also served as a lead formulation consultant and Chief Science Officer in the dietary supplement industry, and has taught chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology for more than three decades.
Copper comes in two forms, and your body is built around copper(I).
Most supplements provide copper(II), which isn't easily converted into the form your cells use.
Whole foods naturally supply copper(I)—and copper(I)-nicotinate mirrors that.
From absorption to delivery to release, copper(I) works with your body's own design.
Formulas powered by BioCopper1®, copper(I)-nicotinate.
Our highest dose: 2 mg of copper per capsule.
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0.5 mg of copper per capsule for everyday support.
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